One in five workers in the European Union is exposed to high temperatures at work, making extreme heat one of the fastest-growing occupational risks linked to climate change, according to the European Agency for Safety and Health at Work (EU-OSHA).
Those most at risk are people who work outdoors or in hot indoor environments. Agriculture, construction, transport, manufacturing, emergency services and tourism are among the sectors facing the greatest health and productivity impacts during increasingly frequent heatwaves.
Agriculture and construction are on the front line
Agriculture is consistently identified as the sector most exposed to extreme heat.
The International Labour Organization (ILO) says farm workers face prolonged exposure to direct sunlight while carrying out physically demanding work that raises body temperature even further. Construction workers experience similar risks, often spending long hours outdoors performing heavy manual labour while wearing protective clothing that limits the body’s ability to cool itself.
Eurofound’s 2024 European Working Conditions Survey found that 68% of agricultural workers and 52% of construction workers are exposed to high temperatures for at least one quarter of their working time. Exposure is also widespread in industry (33%) and transport (33%).
The survey also found that the share of European workers exposed to high temperatures for between one quarter and three quarters of their working time has risen from 13% in 1995 to 21% in 2024, highlighting how heat exposure has become increasingly common across the workforce.
Which occupations face the highest exposure?
Exposure varies significantly by occupation rather than by sector.
According to Eurofound, skilled agricultural workers are by far the most exposed, with 72% reporting that they work in high temperatures for at least one quarter of their working time.
They are followed by craft workers (53%), while plant and machine operators (42%) and elementary occupations (40%) also report high levels of exposure. Other occupations, including services and sales workers, are less exposed, as shown in the chart below.
Managers, professionals and clerical workers report much lower levels of exposure.
Men are far more likely to be exposed
Heat exposure also differs sharply by gender because many of the highest-risk occupations remain male-dominated.
Eurofound found that 34% of men are exposed to high temperatures for at least one quarter of their working time, compared with 18% of women.
Many of the sectors most affected also employ large numbers of seasonal, migrant and self-employed workers, groups that often have weaker employment protections and lower levels of trade union representation.
Heat is becoming a growing workplace health risk
Extreme heat does far more than make workers uncomfortable.
According to EU-OSHA, prolonged exposure can lead to dehydration, heat exhaustion and heat stroke while worsening cardiovascular and respiratory illnesses. High temperatures also reduce concentration and reaction times, increasing the risk of workplace accidents.
The risks vary by occupation.
Farmers and forestry workers face growing exposure to tick-borne diseases, allergens and air pollution, while construction workers are increasingly affected by urban heat islands that raise temperatures well above surrounding areas. Emergency workers, including firefighters, police officers and paramedics, often work in the most dangerous conditions while responding to heat-related emergencies.
Productivity losses
A recent report by Allianz Trade argues that once temperatures exceed roughly 30°C, productivity losses accelerate sharply and become a structural drag on economic growth rather than a temporary weather-related disruption.
Construction and agriculture are among the sectors most affected because work often has to slow or stop during the hottest hours of the day.
Heat also creates wider disruption across the economy. Manufacturing faces higher cooling costs and lower worker productivity, while transport networks suffer delays as roads soften and rail tracks expand or buckle. Electricity systems come under increasing pressure as demand for cooling rises just as gas-, coal- and nuclear-fired power stations become less efficient because warmer rivers reduce their cooling capacity.
Agriculture remains particularly vulnerable because crops and livestock are directly exposed to prolonged heat and drought, increasing the risk of lower harvests and higher food prices.
According to Eurostat, agriculture accounted for 1.2% of the EU’s gross domestic product in 2024, although its importance varies widely across member states, reaching more than 3% of GDP in Greece and 2.5% in Romania.
Construction, by contrast, contributes around 9% of the EU’s GDP and provides employment for around 18 million people, according to the European Commission. That makes it both one of Europe’s largest industries and one of the sectors facing the greatest disruption from rising temperatures.
How to protect workers?
The latest heatwave has also renewed pressure for stronger worker protections across Europe.
Several countries have reinforced or activated heat-at-work measures, including restricting outdoor work during the hottest hours, shortening shifts and requiring employers to provide water, shade and additional rest breaks.
Meanwhile, this week, the European Trade Union Confederation called on the European Commission to introduce binding EU-wide rules on occupational heat exposure, including a maximum working temperature, mandatory paid cooling breaks and guaranteed access to drinking water, arguing that the current patchwork of national rules leaves many workers insufficiently protected.