Former football players show higher levels of depression and anxiety and self-reported difficulties with thinking and decision-making than healthy non-players, according to new research.
Early results from the study show that nearly a third of the 142 professional former players in the study had symptoms serious enough to be classed as clinical depression, compared with just 9% of the comparison group. For anxiety, 42% of players met the threshold, against 25% of non-players.
“Although there were not clear differences between ex-players and non-players in standard cognitive tests, we did see significant differences in symptoms (such as anxiety and depression) reported by participants, as well as in brain imaging,” said Caleigh Grace Lynch, lead author of the study.
She added that the findings suggest there may be measurable effects on brain health in former professional footballers even in midlife, well before conditions such as dementia typically become apparent.
The study involved 142 former professional players aged 30 to 60: 126 men with at least three years as full-time professionals, and 16 women who had played in the UK’s top two women’s divisions.
They were compared with 56 healthy people of similar age with no history of contact sports, military service, head injuries or neurological problems.
The research, carried out by researchers at Imperial College London and presented at the Alzheimer’s Association International Conference (AAIC) 2026, also found that former elite players reported reduced ability to plan, concentrate, solve problems and manage daily tasks compared with those who had not played the sport.
But this only showed up when people described their own experience; actual tests of memory and thinking found no clear difference between the two groups.
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) scans revealed differences in brain structure between some former players and the healthy comparison group, with evidence of reduced brain volume among the footballers.
However, the researchers cautioned that while heightened symptoms and altered volume patterns may point to trauma-related neurodegeneration, further work is needed to establish this conclusively.
“Studies like this can help players, clinicians and sporting bodies better understand potential risks and consider how the game can be made safer, while allowing individuals to make informed choices,” said Maria C. Carrillo, chief science officer at the Alzheimer’s Association.
Millions of people across the world play football every day, and while any physical activity is overall beneficial for health, the sport can also be a source of head injuries.
Players are exposed to repetitive head impacts due to low-intensity intentional ball-heading and to severe head collisions against an opponent’s body or the ground.
“By following participants over time, we hope to better understand how repeated head impacts may affect long‑term brain health. This will also help to find ways to reduce potential risks in sport,” said Thomas Parke from the UK Dementia Research Institute.